What are we protecting against?

What are Codes?

Types of Codes

Examples of Codes

Examples of Biosecurity Codes

For more examples of Biosecurity Codes, visit our CODES ARCHIVE.

 

What are we protecting against? Top

Dangerous biological agents are stored and studied in laboratories around the world. It is important to understand what biological agents are the most dangerous and which pose the greatest threat for misuse. In the table below, biological agents of the greatest concern are shown and those in bold are those which are seen as posing the greatest threat for misuse.

Viruses	Camelpox Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever Eastern equine encephalitis Ebola Hendra Lassa fever Marburg Monkeypox Rift Valley fever South American hemorrhagic fevers Tick-borne encephalitis complex Variola major Effects: Causes smallpox and can be transmitted rapidly through human-to-human contact. Mortality rate: 30% Venezuelan equine encephalitis
Bacteria	Bacillus anthracis Effects: Causes anthrax and is transmitted through skin contact, inhalation, and consumption of contaminated meat. Mortality rate: 20% Cutaneous; Near 100% Inhalation; 25 to 60% Intestinal. Brucella abortus, B. meltensis, B. suis Effects: Causes brucellosis and is contracted through consumption of contaminated meat. Mortality rate: Less than 2% Burkholderia mallei Effects: Causes glanders and is transmitted through contact with contaminated horses. Mortality rate: Up to 50%. Burkholderia psuedomallei Clostridium botulinum Effects: Causes botulism and is transmitted through improperly processed foods. Mortality rate: Less than 8%. Francisella tularensis Effects: Causes tularemia and is transmitted through insect bites or contaminated water. Mortality rate: 5% to 15%. Yersinia Pestis Effects: Causes plague and is transmitted through fleas and human coughing. Mortality rate: 70% Bubonic; 90% Pneumonic; near 100% Septicemic.
Rickettsiae	Coxiella burnetii Rickettsia prowazekii Rickettsia rickettsii
Fungi	Coccidioides immitis
Toxins	Abrin Botulinum neurotoxin Clostridium perfringens epsilon Conotoxins Diacetoxyscirpenol Ricin Effects: Causes circulatory collapse. Mortality rate: Around 95% if inhaled and not immediately treated Saxitoxin Shigatoxin Staphylococcal enterotoxins Tetrodotoxin T-2 toxin

 

 

What are codes? Top

A code is a set of conventional principles and expectations that are considered binding on any person who is a member of a particular group, whether or not membership in that group is voluntary. A code is a unique regulatory instrument that should not be mistaken with a treaty, guideline, or principle.

There are also a number of different words that can be used in place of codes (e.g. – charter, oath, declaration, etc…) but mean essentially the same thing as evidenced by some of the examples below.

Types of Codes: Top

Codes can either be voluntarily binding or involuntarily binding. A code could be said to be voluntarily binding on a participant that chooses to be a member of any society or group that sponsors a code. While codes which have concrete consequences irregardless of one’s voluntary entry into compliance can be said to be involuntarily binding.

Some researchers have further categorized codes by their objectives and the level at which the code is binding.

Source: Rappert, Brian (2004), Towards a Life Sciences Code: Countering the Threat from Biological Weapons, Bradford Briefing Papers, University of Bradford Department of Peace Studies, Bradford , UK .

There is much debate as to the effectiveness of “aspirational” and “educational” codes that are voluntary and unenforceable, specifically when one is determined to act against the code. While this problem is eliminated when a code is coupled with an enforcement mechanism, care must be taken that the code is not redundant because it simply mimics legal statutes.

Examples of Codes: Top

Codes are used to guide people’s actions in a variety of different sectors and activities. As they have been developed in a number of science and engineering disciplines, outside the life sciences, it could be useful to examine different codes in order to incorporate their successful characteristics.

Governmental Code

Below is the code of ethics for scientific researchers working within the US Department of Agriculture.

Code of Scientific Ethics for the United States Department of Agriculture Agricultural Research Service
I dedicate myself to the pursuit and promotion of beneficial scientific investigation, consistent with the mission of the Agricultural Research Service.
I will never hinder the beneficial research of others.
I will conduct, discuss, manage, judge and report science honestly, thoroughly, and without conflict of interest.
I will encourage constructive critique of my personal science and that of my colleagues, in a manner that fosters harmony and quality amid scientific debate.
I recognize past and present contributors to my science and will not accept unwarranted credit for the accomplishment of others.
I will maintain and improve my professional skills and be a mentor to others.
I will ensure safety and humane treatment of human and animal subjects and will prevent abuse of research resources entrusted to me.

Source: Center for the Study of Ethics in the Professions. "Code of Ethics Online: United States Government"

Institutional Code

Below is the code of ethics for the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE).

We, the members of the IEEE, in recognition of the importance of our technologies in affecting the quality of life throughout the world, and in accepting a personal obligation to our profession, its members and the communities we serve, do hereby commit ourselves to the highest ethical and professional conduct and agree:

1. to accept responsibility in making engineering decisions consistent with the safety, health and welfare of the public, and to disclose promptly factors that might endanger the public or the environment;
2. to avoid real or perceived conflicts of interest whenever possible, and to disclose them to affected parties when they do exist;
3. to be honest and realistic in stating claims or estimates based on available data;
4. to reject bribery in all its forms;
5. to improve the understanding of technology, its appropriate application, and potential consequences;
6. to maintain and improve our technical competence and to undertake technological tasks for others only if qualified by training or experience, or after full disclosure of pertinent limitations;
7. to seek, accept, and offer honest criticism of technical work, to acknowledge and correct errors, and to credit properly the contributions of others;
8. to treat fairly all persons regardless of such factors as race, religion, gender, disability, age, or national origin;
9. to avoid injuring others, their property, reputation, or employment by false or malicious action;
10. to assist colleagues and co-workers in their professional development and to support them in following this code of ethics.
Approved by the IEEE Board of Directors
August 1990

Source: The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers. "IEEE Code of Ethics”.

Associational Code

Below is the code of conduct for the World Nuclear Association.

CHARTER OF ETHICS

We, the Members of the World Nuclear Association, affirm:

Premises

This “charter” has been truncated. Click here for the full version.

Source: The World Nuclear Association. "Charter of Ethics”, Accessed 23 May 2005.

Examples of Biosecurity Codes: Top

There is no “universal” code to guide the conduct of those involved in the life sciences. Below are examples of biosecurity codes from different sources that are currently in use.

Codes Proposed by Individuals

Below is a proposed code of ethics for the life sciences developed by M. A. Somerville, McGill Centre for Medicine, Ethics, and Law, and Ronald M. Atlas, Center for the Deterrence of Biowarfare and Bioterrorism at the University of Louisville .

CODE OF ETHICS FOR THE LIFE SCIENCES

All persons and institutions engaged in any aspect of the life sciences must

1. Work to ensure that their discoveries and knowledge do no harm
(i) by refusing to engage in any research that is intended to facilitate or that has
a high probability of being used to facilitate bioterrorism or biowarfare; and
(ii) by never knowingly or recklessly contributing to development, production,
or acquisition of microbial or other biological agents or toxins, whatever their
origin or method of production, of types or in quantities that cannot be justified
on the basis that they are necessary for prophylactic, protective, therapeutic,
or other peaceful purposes.
2. Work for ethical and beneficent advancement, development, and use of
scientific knowledge.
3. Call to the attention of the public, or appropriate authorities, activities
(including unethical research) that there are reasonable grounds to believe
are likely to contribute to bioterrorism or biowarfare.
4. Seek to allow access to biological agents that could be used as biological
weapons only to individuals for whom there are reasonable grounds to
believe that they will not misuse them.
5. Seek to restrict dissemination of dual-use information and knowledge
to those who need to know in cases where there are reasonable grounds to
believe that the information or knowledge could be readily
misused through bioterrorism or biowarfare.
6. Subject research activities to ethics and safety reviews and monitoring to ensure that
(i) legitimate benefits are being sought and that they outweigh the risks and harms; and
(ii) involvement of human or animal subjects is ethical and essential for carrying out
< highly important research.
7. Abide by laws and regulations that apply to the conduct of science
unless to do so would be unethical and recognize a responsibility
to work through societal institutions to change laws and regulations that conflict
with ethics.
8. Recognize, without penalty, all persons' rights of conscientious
objection to participation in research that they consider ethically
or morally objectionable.
9. Faithfully transmit this code and the ethical principles upon which
it is based to all who are or may become engaged in the conduct of science.

Governmental Code

The government of the UK has developed a "7-point" code, which is currently available for public review, entitled, "Rigour, respect and responsibility: a universal ethical code for scientists." The code is meant to be educational, capture a small number of broad principles that are shared across disciplinary and institutional boundaries, and be adopted voluntarily by individuals and institutions.

The Cuban government has developed the “Code on Professional Ethics for Workers in the Sciences in Cuba” (text in Spanish). Although it focuses on a number of different scientific disciplines, it is clear that the text is meant to guide the actions of life scientists.

At the 2002 Review Conference of the Biological Weapons Convention, parties agreed that they would focus on pathogen security and codes of conduct for those working in the life sciences. Codes of conduct will be an issue of paramount importance at this year’s BWC review.

Institutional Code

The Wellcome Trust is an independent charity organization in the UK which funds Biomedical Science. As an organization committed to, “to foster and promote research with the aim of improving human and animal health,” the Trust has developed a position statement which regulates the conduct that shall used by scientists accepting their funds.

Associational Code

Below is the Australian Society for Microbiology (ASM)’s code of ethics.

The Society requires each member:

Source: Australian Society for Microbiology "Ethics”.